A Psychological Perspective on Behaviorism

A Psychological Perspective on Behaviorism Free Online Research Papers John Watson was born in 1878 and at the age of 16, went to college. He attained a Masters degree at the age of 21, from where he went on to be a school principal. His job lasted a year and then he moved on to attend school once more at the University of Chicago. There he studied philosophy under John Dewey. He was not satisfied with Deweys teachings so he sought out a different advisor and settled on functionalist psychologist James Rowland Angell and physiologist Henry Donaldson (Wikipedia, 2007). Taking what he learned from Angell and Donaldson, Watson began forming his own theories about behavior, eventually known as behaviorism. John B. Watson was soon to become known as the founder of the school of behaviorism in psychology. According to Wikipedia, Behaviorism (also called learning perspective) is a philosophy of psychology based on the proposition that all things which organisms do- including acting, thinking and feeling- can and should be regarded as behaviors. Watsons theory was considered classical behaviorism otherwise known as classical conditioning. Watsons view on behavior was that it was purely elicited. He believed that people did not experience emotions, that they were a response to some other stimuli. Watsons goal for classical behaviorism was to create a more objective science. John Watsons most famous experiment was that of little Albert. Albert was a small child who was brought to work everyday by his parent, a laboratory worker. Everyday Albert would play with the lab rats to keep himself occupied. Watson viewed Alberts activity with the rat as a stimulus. Albert was given the rat (stimuli) which elicited the play behavior. In the experiment, Albert was given the rat to play with, only now the sound of a hammer hitting a metal bar was introduced when the play behavior began. After seven presentations of the rat and the loud sound that scared Albert, a new response was noticed, crying, whenever the rat was introduced back to Albert (Watson Rayner, 1920). This fear response generalized to a new stimuli: Albert also showed fear (CR) when things (CS) similar to the fuzzy lab rat were presented (e.g., men with beards, dogs, fur coats, Santa Claus masks) (Mclntyre, 2003). John Watson was an innovator as well as the father of the school of behaviorism. His work in classical conditioning continues on today in both psycholo gy and in the zoological society. B.F. Skinner, born in 1904, attended college at the Hamilton College in New York. He received a degree in English Literature in 1926 with the intention of becoming a writer. After a year of unsuccessful writing, he chanced upon a copy of Bertrand Russells recently published book An Outline of Philosophy, in which Russell discussed the behaviorist philosophy of psychologist John B. Watson (Wikipedia, 2007). After reading the book Skinner decided to seek admission to Harvard University as a psychology student. Even as a student at Harvard, Skinner became a forward thinker. While a graduate student, he invented the operant conditioning chamber and cumulative recorder, developed the rate of response as a critical dependent variable in psychological research, and developed a powerful, inductive, data-driven method of experimental research (Wikipedia, 2007). After attaining his Ph.D. in psychology in 1931, Skinner went on to create his own school of thought known as Radical Behaviorism. Skinners theory suggests that behaviors are a result of the environment, that the behavior exhibited causes effects, whether positive or negative, that determines the probability of the behavior being reproduced. His theory also paid heavy attention to the schedule of reinforcement. The reinforcement schedule suggests that the more that the behavior is rewarded, the higher the chances that the behavior will reoccur whereas the absence of a reward decreases the probability of the behavior repeating itself. Skinn ers type of conditioning has become known as operant conditioning.It is true that both Watson and Skinner have similar outlooks on behavior however; they do have one major difference. John B. Watson argued against the use of references to mental states, and held that psychology should study behavior directly, holding private events as impossible to study scientifically. Skinner rejected this position conceding the importance of thinking, feelings and inner behavior in his analysis (Wikipedia, 2007). In other words, Skinner believed everything was a behavior, including emotions and that they too should be considered. Edward C. Tolman, born in 1886, received a Ph.D. from Harvard University in 1915 and although Tolman firmly behaviorist in his methodology, he was not a radical behaviorist like B.F. Skinner (Wikipedia, 2007). Tolman believed that learning could occur without a rein forcer (such as a food reward commonly used with animals in both classic and operant conditioning). He believed that what was learned could be used in other environments, that the behavior was not just an automatic response to the stimuli. Tolman, even with a behaviorist view on his subjects, became known for his cognitive theory of learning, he thought of learning as developing from bits of knowledge and cognitions about the environment and how organisms relate to it (a2zpsychology, 2006). Tolmans experiments also involved lab rats but Tolman studied the results of the rats running mazes without the reward. This study introduced the theory of latent learning (that learning can occur with the absence of a reward). This theory relates to humans as well. Tolman believed that humans learn without being aware of it, only when the information is needed, does the person become aware of the learning that occurred. Tolman also believed that motive drives behavior and only when there is a shift in the motive, will there be a disturbance of that behavior. Eventually, Tolmans theories led him to chart cognition. Cognitive maps are a method we use to structure and store spatial knowledge, allowing the minds eye to visualize images in order to reduce cognitive load, and enhance recall and learning of information (Wikipedia, 2007). So even though Tolman studied behavior, he came upon other mental theories. In Conclusion In comparison, John B. Watson, B.F. Skinner, and Edward C. Tolman were all behaviorists of some sort. They all believed that behavior was the underlying reason that a person functioned the way that they did. It was only in the details that they differed. Watson, a classical behaviorist, believed that there was a connection between response and environment. According to Mclntyre 2003), Prominent researchers identified with this orientation noted that an event that formally did not elicit a behavior (known as a neutral stimulus) can be made to do so by pairing (presenting) it with an unconditioned (already present) stimulus. This newly effective stimulus (and the responses to it) are said to be conditioned (trained). Watsons theories continue to be practiced in modern psychology. When a patient has difficulty with certain behaviors, many psychologists will try to reverse it with behavior modification. For example, a person with a fear of planes may go to a psychologist who will then expose the person to pictures of planes, then move to exposing the person to a virtual flight, then take the person to an airport, on the second trip to the airport, the person will stand in a terminal, the next visit it may be to sit on a plane, then eventually, to take a short flight. All these exercises would gradually desensitize the person to their fears, thus changing the behavior. Skinners theory was a bit different from Watsons in that behavior was a result of consequence. He rejected the idea of inner causes for behavior, and placed emphasis on observable behavior as opposed to the theorizing, based on unverifiable evidence, often done by others (Mclntyre, 2003). He believed that the reappearance of a behavio r was based solely on the consequence received at the time the behavior was presented. Skinner also believed that a schedule of reinforcement could help or hinder the progression of the behavior. If the behavior was rewarded every single time, the behavior would eventually extinguish. Skinner believed that behaviors still needed to be driven; that there needs to be motivation in order for the behavior to occur again. Skinners theory is still a practiced psychology. His theory however, is used more frequently among animal trainers. Animal trainers use operant conditioning to elicit responses from animals. Trainers will usually take a natural behavior and turn it into a solicited behavior. Take for example, the dolphin that jumps out of the water. In a controlled environment, that behavior would be rewarded when it is observed. Eventually the animals behavior would be paired with a hand gesture or a whistle and be rewarded with a fish. After several pairings the animal will associate the whistle with the jump and the reward, this it has been conditioned to produce a beha vior motivated by reward. Finally, Tolmans theory of behavior, learning could occur even with the absence of a reward and could happen without knowledge that learning occurred. However, one of Tolmans greatest discoveries had to do with the cognitive map. While Tolman researched behavior, he noted the thought processes that occurred within his subjects. This lead Tolman to be seen as the father of cognitive theory. His cognition map is used in modern psychology as well as a number of other professions. Watson. Skinner and Tolman were all fathers in the field of psychology. Their ideas contributed to the way that behavior is seen. Their theories have helped to create many forms of behavior modification as well as the processes that occur during thought. Although psychologys theories grow and change daily, these three psychologists theories will maintain their values in modern psychology. References: A2zpsychology (2006). Edward C. Tolman (1886-1959). Retrieved on November 23, 2007 from a2zpsychology.com/great_psychologists/edward_c_tolman.htm B.F. Skinner (2007). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved on November 24, 2007 from http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=B._F._Skinneroldid=173748857 Cognitive Map (2007). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved on November 24, 2007 from http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cognitive_mapoldid=171599404 Edward C. Tolman (2007). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved on November 24, 2007 from http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Edward_C._Tolmanoldid=170339259 John B. Watson. (2007) In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved on November 24, 2007 from http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=John_B._Watsonoldid=172124112 Mclntyre, T. (2003). The History of Behaviorism. Retrieved on November 23, 2007 from behavioradvisor.com/BehavoristHistory.html Watson, J., Rayner, R. (1920). Conditioned Emotional Reactions. Retrieved on November 25, 2006 from http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Watson/emotion.htm Research Papers on A Psychological Perspective on BehaviorismEffects of Television Violence on ChildrenStandardized TestingThree Concepts of PsychodynamicHip-Hop is ArtThe Relationship Between Delinquency and Drug Use19 Century Society: A Deeply Divided EraGenetic EngineeringQuebec and CanadaThe Spring and AutumnThe Hockey Game

African Elephant Facts

African Elephant Facts The African elephant (Loxodonta africana and Loxodonta cyclotis) is the largest land animal on the planet. Found in sub-Saharan Africa, this majestic herbivore is known for its remarkable physical adaptations as well as its intelligence. Fast Facts: African Elephants Scientific Name: Loxodonta africana and Loxodonta cyclotisCommon Names:  African elephant: savannah elephant or bush elephant and forest elephantBasic Animal Group: MammalSize: 8–13 feet tall, length of 19–24 feetWeight: 6,000–13,000 poundsLifespan: 60–70 yearsDiet:  HerbivoreHabitat: Sub-Saharan AfricaPopulation: 415,000Conservation Status: Vulnerable Description There are two subspecies of African elephant: savanna or bush elephant (Loxodonta africana) and forest elephant (Loxodonta cyclotis). African bush elephants are lighter gray, larger, and their tusks curve outwards; the forest elephant is darker gray in color and has tusks that are straighter and point downward. Forest elephants make up about one-third to one-quarter of the total elephant population in Africa. Elephants have a number of adaptations that help them to survive. Flapping their large ears enables them to cool down in hot weather, and their large size deters predators. The elephants long trunk reaches food sources located in otherwise inaccessible places, and the trunks are also used in communication and vocalization. Their tusks, which are upper incisors that continue to grow throughout their lifetimes, can be used to strip vegetation and dig to obtain food. Habitat and Range African elephants are found throughout sub-Saharan Africa, where they typically live in plains, woodlands, and forests. They tend not to be territorial, and they roam large ranges through several habitats and across international borders. They are found in dense forests, open and closed savannas, grasslands, and in the deserts of Namibia and Mali. They range between the northern tropics to the southern temperate zones in Africa and are found at the oceans beaches and on mountain slopes and elevations everywhere in between. Elephants are habitat modifiers or ecological engineers that physically alter their environments affecting the resources and changing the ecosystems. They push over, debark, break branches and stems, and uproot trees, which causes changes in tree height, canopy cover, and species composition. Studies have shown that the changes generated by the elephants are actually quite beneficial to the ecosystem, creating an increase in total biomass (up to seven times the original), an increase in nitrogen in the content of new leaves, as well as an increase in habitat complexity and food availability. The net effect is a multilayered canopy and a continuum of leaf biomass supporting their own and other species.   Edwin Godinho / EyeEm  /  Getty Images Diet Both subspecies of African elephants are herbivores, and most of their diet (65 percent to 70 percent) consists of leaves and bark. They will also eat a wide variety of plants, including grass and fruit: Elephants are bulk feeders and require an enormous amount of food to survive, consuming an estimated 220–440 pounds of forage  daily. Access to a permanent source of water is critical- most elephants drink frequently, and they need to obtain water at least once every two days. Elephant mortality is quite high in drought-affected regions. Behavior Female African elephants form matriarchal groupings. The dominant female is the matriarch and the head of the grouping, and the rest of the group consists primarily of the females offspring. Elephants use low-frequency rumbling sounds to communicate within their groupings. In contrast, male African elephants are mostly solitary and nomadic. They temporarily associate with different matriarchal groups as they seek mating partners. Males assess each others physical prowess by play-fighting with one another. Male elephants behavior is linked to their musth period, which typically takes place during winter. During musth, male elephants secrete an oily substance called temporin from their temporal glands. Their testosterone levels are as much as six times higher than normal during this period. Elephants in musth can become aggressive and violent. The exact evolutionary cause for musth is not definitively known, though research suggests that it may be linked to the assertion and reorganization of dominance. Reproduction and Offspring Elephants are polyandrous and polygamous; mating happens year round, whenever females are in estrus. They give birth to one or rarely two live young about once every three years. Gestation periods are approximately 22 months long. Newborns weigh between 200 and 250 pounds each. They are weaned after 4 months although they may continue to take milk from the mothers as part of their diet for up to three years. Young elephants are tended by the mother and other females in the matriarchal grouping. They become fully independent at the age of eight. Female elephants reach sexual maturity at about 11 years of age; males at 20. The lifespan of an African elephant is typically between 60 and 70 years.   Patrick Robert - Corbis  /Getty Images Misconceptions Elephants are beloved creatures, but they arent always fully understood by humans. Misconception: Elephants drink water through their trunks. Truth: While elephants use their trunks in the drinking process, they dont drink through it. Instead, they use the trunk to scoop water into their mouths.Misconception: Elephants are afraid of mice. Truth: While elephants may be startled by the darting movement of mice, they have not been proven to have a specific fear of mice.Misconception: Elephants mourn their dead. Truth: Elephants demonstrate an interest in the remains of their dead, and their interactions with those remains often seem ritualistic and emotional. However, scientists have not yet determined the precise cause of this mourning process, nor have they determined the degree to which elephants understand death. Threats The main threats to the continued existence of elephants on our planet are poaching, habitat loss, and climate change. In addition to overall population loss, poaching removes a majority of bulls over the age of 30 and females over the age of 40. Animal researchers believe that the loss of older females is particularly acute, as it impacts the social networks of elephant herds. Older females are the repositories of ecological knowledge who teach calves where and how to find food and water. Although there is evidence that their social networks are restructured after the loss of the older females, orphaned calves tend to leave from their natal core groups and die alone. Poaching has decreased with the institution of international laws prohibiting them, but it does continue to be a threat to these animals. Conservation Status The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) classifies African elephants as vulnerable, while the ECOS Environmental Conservation Online System classifies them as threatened. According to the Great Elephant Census of 2016, there are approximately 350,000 African savanna elephants located in 30 countries. Between 2011 and 2013, more than 100,000 elephants were killed, mostly by poachers seeking their tusks for ivory. The African Wildlife Foundation estimates there are 415,000 African elephants in 37 countries, including both savanna and forest subspecies, and that 8 percent are killed by poachers annually. Sunshine Seeds/Getty Images Sources Blanc, J. Loxodonta africana. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: e.T12392A3339343, 2008.Elephant. African Wildlife Foundation.  Foley, Charles A. H., and Lisa J. Faust. Rapid Population Growth in an Elephant Loxodonta Africana Population Recovering from Poaching in Tarangire National Park, Tanzania. Oryx 44.2 (2010): 205–12. Print.Goldenberg, Shifra Z., and George Wittemyer. Orphaning and Natal Group Dispersal Are Associated with Social Costs in Female Elephants. Animal Behaviour 143 (2018): 1–8. Print.Kohi, Edward M., et al. African Elephants (Loxodonta Africana) Amplify Browse Heterogeneity in African Savanna. Biotropica 43.6 (2011): 711–21. Print.McComb, Karen, et al. Matriarchs as Repositories of Social Knowledge in African Elephants. Science 292.5516 (2001): 491–94. Print.Tchamba, Martin N., et al. Plant Biomass Density as an Indicator of Food Supply for Elephants (Loxodonta Africana) in Waza National Park, Cameroon. Tropical Conservation Scie nce 7.4 (2014): 747–64. Print. The Status of African elephants. World Wildlife Magazine, Winter 2018.Wato, Yussuf A., et al. Prolonged Drought Results in Starvation of African Elephant (Loxodonta Africana). Biological Conservation 203 (2016): 89–96. Print.Wittemyer, G., and W. M. Getz. Hierarchical Dominance Structure and Social Organization in African Elephants, Loxodonta Africana. Animal Behaviour 73.4 (2007): 671–81. Print.

Ladders and stairways safety Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Ladders and stairways safety - Essay Example Stairway or ladder is considered as essential to provide to the employees when nineteen inches or more elevation has to be made without any ramp, embankment, runway or personal hoist. It should be kept in mind that it is mandatory for the employers to provide its employees a ladder or a stairway in every such point of transition. If the two levels are joined by only one point of transition employers should keep that point clear of any obstacles so that the employees are ensured of a free passage of movement. However even after taking adequate precaution if that transit point gets clumsy so that the movement of the employees gets severely restricted, the employer should prepare a second point of transition between the same two levels and provide its access to their employees. Furthermore if on from the very beginning or in the course of work a certain working place gets more than once access point between two levels the employers have to ensure that one of the transit point must be open for all the time and it should be cleared of any obstacle as well. A culmination of cautiousness, precaution and technology has to be used to ensure ladder safety at work place. To avoid slipping hazards ladder should be kept free of any slippery materials such as oil, grease and other form of oily element. Even to maintain a ladder use of all these products are strictly prohibited. Even after taking all the precautionary measures, if somehow the surface of the steps catches oil immediate wipe is strictly recommended. Each type of ladder is constructed with a certain objective and using them for their particularly purpose would not only ensure their longevity but it will also keep away several unwanted incidents. While putting a ladder into use the surface quality must be carefully watched. If the surface is uneven or slippery it may easily

The abortion Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

The abortion - Essay Example However, a spontaneous expulsion occurring within the twelve weeks of gestation is termed as a ‘miscarriage’. On the other hand, the cessation of a pregnancy may also occur due to induced expulsion of human embryo or fetus (Gupta, 2011, p. 359). Abortion seems to be a mystery when it comes to ethicality and an argument in favor of supporting family life. The Reader-response criticism of the story â€Å"The abortion† by Alice Walker, however, provided a better view on my perceptions and beliefs on the topic of â€Å"abortion†. Induced expulsion is done intentionally by parents themselves. It is done by using medicines to kill the fetus while the baby’s heart starts beating. It is either because parents do not want to have another child or they do not want a child at all. There are numerous procedures for induced abortion. However, the chosen process or way should be in accordance with the age of fetus, laws and rules, service availability and the coor dination between doctor and patient about the chosen process (Surgery 2009). The most common medical reasons that are claimed to be strong and in favor of abortion include the struggle to save woman’s physical and mental well being. An induced abortion is â€Å"that brought on intentionally by medication or instrumentation† (The Free Dictionary by Farlex). But does this intentional act actually an individual and sovereign decision? Was Imrani willing to undertake that abortion? Was it morally and ethically justifiable? The ethical reasons most people present often include the argument that their child is of less age and he or she needs more attention of the mother. But it is a crime and it is unfair means to avoid a child. The mother, often forcing herself into this decision, suffers a lot. Imrani’s immediate response to the abortion was painful, torturing and suffering. â€Å"She could not imagine being fine again† (p. 212). This is what happens to mothe rs due to their natural affection and love that they hold for their children. If the abortion was to save Imrani’s life or mental health, it was deteriorated anyways. The story â€Å"The Abortion† by Alice Walker, is based on this brutal act of aborting one’s child. The incidents and scenarios provided in the story resemble the circumstances that one of my friends went through. She had a 7 months baby and she was pregnant again but her husband persuaded her to abort the child as their first child was still too young. My friend really did not like the idea to kill her own child as she feels his heartbeat and she was very upset. But as her husband insisted she agreed to abort it. The consequences of not opting for an abortion seemed devastating for her married life. Her husband got too harsh while persuading her on the abortion. However, her strong will and determination led her to resist all the forceful arguments against the birth of her second child. The financ ial problems that her husband referred to, the health issue that he used as a prop and the worsened relationship between them were difficult to resist. Like Imrani, she also took a wrong decision due to continuous conflict with her husband. This was the day she killed her baby and her happy life. She felt awful after getting the abortion and could not accept her husband’s love and affection to be true. She felt cruel and inhuman. Her views changed about herself and her husband. She could not continue with her happy life and did not feel contented ever again. The guilt of killing a child and taking his breath away stayed with her, even after her divorce! Abortion has been legalized during 1973 in approximately 50 states for social, medical or other valid reasons. But as everyone knows, in the modern society, the decision of

Knowledge, Attitude and Breast Cancer Screening Practices in Ghana Essay Example for Free

Knowledge, Attitude and Breast Cancer Screening Practices in Ghana Essay INTRODUCTION   Ã‚   Breast cancer in its simplest definition is the cancer of breast tissue. It is the most common nonskin cancer that affects women in the United States and the highest fatality rates of cancer deaths among women in low-resource countries (Anderson et al 2006). Severity of breast cancer differs based on its level of tissue invasion. Ductal carcinoma in situ is the most common noninvasive breast cancer while infiltrating or invasive ductal carcinoma is the most common breast cancer that accounts for about 80% of invasive breast cancer. Breast lumps presentation is the commonest form of presentation regardless of the breast cancer type (ACS 2005). Epidemiologic factors are attributed to dietary and environmental risk factors, although association of diet and breast cancer had varied results. Environmental risk factors involve the exposure to several toxic elements which accounts for the increased incidence of breast cancer in Western countries. Alcohol intake is also considered to effect in the increase of the number of cases in the US population. Age is also considered as cancer risk factor and can be attributed to hormonal change. Genetic variation and ethnicity are not out of scope for the investigation of breast cancer risk factors (Barton 2005). Diagnosis and Pathology of Breast Cancer: In 2002, Breast Health Global Initiative (BHGI) together with panel of breast cancer experts and patient advocates develop a consensus of recommendations for the diagnosis of breast cancer in limited-resource countries (Shyyan 2006). Histopathologic diagnosis included fine-needle aspiration biopsy which was recognized as the least expensive, core needle biopsy and surgical biopsy and had a consensus of choosing the method based on the availability of tools and expertise. They gave emphasis on the correlation of histopathology, clinical and imaging findings. They agreed on the need of histopathologic diagnosis before breast cancer treatment. In 2005, BHGI panel recommended an additional strategy of breast cancer management. They stratify diagnostic procedure and histopathology methods into – â€Å"basic, limited, enhanced, and maximal—from lowest to highest resources†. Basic level includes medical history of the patient, clinical breast examination, tissue diagnosis and medical record keeping. Limited level includes the increasing resources that enable diagnostic imaging utilization such as ultrasound with or without mammography, tests that can evaluate metastasis, use of image-guided sampling and hormone receptor sampling. Enhanced level includes diagnostic mammography, bone scanning and an onsite cytologist. Maximal level includes mass screening mammography (Shyyan 2006). Treatment of Breast Cancer: Treatment includes surgery, radiotherapy or chemotherapy or combinations of these three treatment modalities. According to American Cancer Society (2005), treatment can be local or systemic. Local treatment of the tumor is done without affecting the rest of the body. Surgery and radiation are examples of this treatment. On the other hand, systemic treatment which includes chemotherapy, hormone therapy and immunotherapy, is given into the bloodstream or by mouth to reach the cancer cells that may have spread the beyond the breast.    Radiotherapy is a treatment of breast cancer with high-energy rays to help shrink the cancer cells. It can be given outside of the body (external radiation) or can be placed directly into the tumor as radioactive materials (ACS 2005). It may be given external to the body.   Radiotherapy requires safe and effective application requiring appropriate facilities, staff and equipment. Radiotherapy should be applied without delay, should be accessible to all but without prolongation of the overall treatment time exposure. It is part of an integral part of breast-conserving treatment. It is required in almost all women with the breast cancer, and therefore should be available (Bese 2006).   Ã‚  Chemotherapy is the use of anticancer drugs that are administered through injection in the vein or taken orally as a pill. It may be given before breast cancer surgery to reduce the size of the tumor or may be given after the surgery to reduce the chance of   recurrence (ACS 2005). This treatment is done in cycle the most common of which is 3-6 months. Most common side effects of these drugs usually stop   once the treatment is over such as in hair falling. Some of   drugs used as chemotherapy     are tamoxifen, cyclophosphamide, methotrexate, 5-fluorouracil doxorubicin, epirubicin, taxane and aromatase . These are usually prescribed in combination, and treatment is done with adjuvant therapy such as radiotherapy and pre- and post operation ( Eniu 2006).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Surgical management in breast cancer is very common. This is done to remove as much as the cancer as possible and to find out whether the cancer has spread to the lymph nodes under the arm. Surgery can also restore the appearance of the breast and relieve the symptoms of advanced cancer. ACS (2005) released some of the common surgical procedures in breast cancer. These are lumpectomy, partial or segmental mastectomy, simple or total mastectomy, modified radical mastectomy and radical mastectomy. RESULTS    Breast cancer patients in Ghana. The present study which included women with mean age population of 48 years   revealed an almost consistent perception with regards to breast cancer.  Ã‚   They were aware that breast cancer is highly increasing in their place but not informed of the cause of disease. All of the responders were not aware of family breast cancer history except one. Information about breast cancer was acquired through television and radio programs. Only after   consultation with doctors due to lumps or   pains in their breast and some due to liquid coming out of their breast, that they were informed that they have breast cancer. Most of them underwent breast tissue exam for confirmation of the disease. Afterwards, they were advised to undergo surgery with medical treatment. The responders were ignorant of the breast cancer screening and prevention. In fact, out of 10 responders, only 2 (20%) of them were aware of breast self examination and clinical breast examination and admitted that they occasionally practice BSE. None of the responders knew about mammogram except for one (10%) of them who has heard of it but never had tried one. The feeling towards the knowledge of acquiring the disease was also the same; the feeling of being a burden in the family was common. They were afraid to face the reality but have realized that they have to fight the disease through the encouragement and support of family members and   help of medical professionals. The sample population was aware of the herbalist and faith healers but they did not submit themselves into that kind of treatment because herbalist have not   proven cure for breast cancer.   The most common complaint of the responders was the high cost of therapies, hospitalization and doctor fees. The treatment cost ranged to    ¢250,000- ¢24 million except to one of them who received a free treatment for being enrolled to a clinical trial. Sentiments of the participants were the same. Delay of treatment was attributed to their distant place from the health clinics; some facilities like x-ray were not available in the clinics and   high cost of treatment. These people asked for the betterment of breast cancer management through education dissemination to the community by health care providers and a help from the government to provide financial support to those who cannot afford to submit themselves for treatment. Patients in breast cancer clinic. In this part of the study, women with mean age of 42 years who were in breast cancer clinic were included. Most common medical complaint was lump and pain in the breast while others submit themselves for screening because they have just heard it from the radio/TV.   The study revealed that women who were attending the clinic were not actually informed of the cause breast cancer but aware of its increasing rate of mortality. Misconception about the cause of breast cancer such as exposure to coins was not common but did not exclude the form of trauma due to manipulation of the breast. Others correlate breast cancer with smoking and taking alcoholic beverages. They were not aware of their family history of breast cancer.   Information regarding breast cancer was acquired through television and radio programs and others were through their friends and family members. Most of the respondents believed that early detection and prompt treatment of the disease can prevent the unfavorable outcome of breast cancer such as removal of their breast or the worst would be cancer death. Only one out of   10 participants (10%) actually practice breast self examination (BSE). Most of them were informed of BSE but not actually practicing it. They were also aware of healers and herbalist but they did not believe that they can cure breast cancer but did not disagree of the possibility that herbalist and healers could treat other diseases or illnesses like hypertension. The participants suggested that it would be better if the government would provide or establish more health care clinics for breast cancer screening and provide free screening programs especially to those who cannot afford to   pay for high cost of treatment of the disease and for an open-easy access to all especially to those in rural areas. One of the participants suggested   that doctors should study further about the treatment of breast cancer instead of resorting to breast surgery. Healers involved in breast cancer management. Many of the population of Ghana are still patronizing healers and herbalist as a resort   of treatment. Two healers from Ghana were interviewed regarding their management of breast cancer. The healers have been into this practice for about 20-50 years. According to them, breast cancer is very common in Ghana and they are aware of the increasing incidence of   the disease. They described breast cancer as an â€Å"obosam† disease and the other was a supernatural disease. Healers believed that their ability to cure   the disease inherited from their forefathers who taught them how to prepare herbs and provide them with dwarfs. They believed that doctors have no right treatment towards breast cancer because according to them they just remove the breasts of women   and subsequently die. According to the healers they do not promote breast   examinations to their patients because these are useless and cannot stop women from getting the disease. Despite the big machines available in the hospitals, women with breast cancer still die, according to them. Healers charge their patients with as much as  ¢200,000- ¢1( £15-60) million depending on the patients’ condition. The healers admitted that there were cases of recurrence of the disease due to lost to follow up and missed spiritual sessions. Healers do not refer patients to hospitals rather, they encourage hospital doctors to refer their patients to healers because they are more capable of treating breast cancer. Breast cancer consultants.   Medical health professionals play a significant role in the awareness of breast cancer. They have the power to influence their patients toward right management of the disease. In the present study, surgeon/breast cancer consultants were interviewed. Consultants as expected were aware of the increasing incidence of breast cancer but they cannot give an exact figure due to absence of cancer registry in the place however they were able to attend to 200-300 new cases of breast cancer annually with age range starting from 20 years and above. They revealed that women in Ghana associate breast cancer to death because after undergoing breast caner surgery they usually die. People in Ghana link medical intervention and death which made the women in this place afraid of   the disease and lead them to negative attitude towards the disease. Consultants believed that there were several misconceptions about the disease. They were also aware that healers and herbalist delay the   presentation of patients to   hospital which accounted for the late stage of diagnosis. National Screening Program would benefit the people in Ghana for early detection of breast cancer and prompt treatment, however, they did not deny the fact it would be difficult to establish such program due to lack of funds by the government at present time. Consultants were aware of the limited resources of the needed for the implementation of the program. They believe that it is much easier and feasible to educate the women on simple screening methods such as regular breast self examination and encourage practitioners to take advantage of examining the breasts of their patients. There are also NGOs who are engaged in some activities like providing health care assistance. Consultants revealed that they receive referrals from district regions and from private practitioners. All patients with breast cancer are candidates for surgery. There are just some procedures that lead to untoward incident which cause the people to blame the doctors. According to consultants, one big problem that they encounter is the delay of the result of tissue exam from the pathologists which sometimes lead them to acquire the high cost of private laboratory. According to consultants the 5-year survival rate in Ghan is 25% which is disappointing. According to radiology consultant, patients present themselves to treatment once they are already in advanced stage, most at stage 3 and 4. They revealed the common factors that influence the delay of treatment among Ghana women. Most of the patients were scared of the procedure of   breast cancer treatment like in breast surgery which have many social and marriage implications. The high cost of the procedure hinders the patient to go to the doctors. Consultants revealed that surgical procedure may cost    ¢2-3million   ( £ 150-200), radiotherapy is about    ¢3-4 million (  £ 200-300) and chemotherapy is around  ¢6 million ( £400). Although surgical treatment cost is covered in National Health Insurance, the cost of radiotherapy and chemotherapy are excluded. Mammography which is an effective tool in breast cancer screening costs  ¢400,000 ( £30) in private health institution and around  ¢250,000 ( £20). DISCUSSION WITH REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURES   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The present study aimed to increase the awareness of the women in Ghana to breast cancer and the benefits that can be gained from breast cancer screening. The knowledge, attitude, behavior and practices of the women regarding early detection of breast cancer were analyzed. The ultimate aim of the study was to reduce the mortality rate of   breast cancer.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The study revealed that there were still misconceptions about breast cancer despite the information gathered from televisions and radio programs. Attendance of Ghanaian women in breast clinic did not mean that they were informed of the nature of their disease. Only few of them were also aware of preventive procedure in detecting breast cancer. Local healers and spiritualists also delayed the presentation of the patients to the hospital which contributed to the late diagnosis of the disease. Difference in the disease management of health professionals can be attributed to the location of practice and availability of resources. Several factors   thought to affect the breast cancer screening program were the poor education of the Ghanaian towards prevention awareness against breast cancer; lack of initiative of the people to spread the knowledge of   breast cancer screening such as simple breast self examination and clinical breast examination; the inaccessibility of the of primary health care and the organizers; the unavailability of the appropriate screening tools like x-ray and mammography in the community and its high cost   and the lack of support from the government.   The following   review of related literatures will help in the understanding of breast cancer and breast cancer screening. Because of the continuous increasing prevalence of breast cancer and high cost of treatment, breast cancer screening remains the most cost effective way of cancer management (Parkin and Fernandez 2006).   Most of the world faces resource constraints that hinder the capacity to improve early detection, prompt diagnosis and sufficient treatment of the breast cancer. Every country finds its way to develop evidenced based, economically feasible and culturally appropriate guidelines that can be utilized by countries of limited health care resources to improve breast cancer outcomes (Anderson 2006). Adaptive strategies should be applied to ease the growing burden of breast cancer. In 2005, according to Smith and his colleagues (2006), the Breast Health Global Initiative (BHGI) held its second summit in Bethesda, MD with the intention of reaffirming the principle of requiring all women of all resource levels to support in seeking health care and assuring the access to affordable and appropriate diagnostic tests and treatment intervention against breast cancer. They recommended breast health awareness to all women including the basic resources. They enhanced the basic facilities for effective training of relevant staff in clinical breast examination (CBE) or breast self examination and even the feasibility of mammography. MRI: Magnetic resonance imaging is one of the breast cancer screening procedures. It has been increasingly used as tool for early diagnosis of breast cancer. This screening tool has shown to detect cancers even they are small and potentially proven to be more curable than mammography alone. However, MRI is more costly than mammography and can lead to unnecessary breast biopsies, thus causing anxiety and discomfort to patient. On the other hand, a research study about the cost-effectiveness of breast MRI screening by cancer risk where they included the cancer detection ability of MRI, characteristics of women with dense breast tissue and women with high inherited breast cancer risk, revealed mortality reduction and cost effectiveness of breast MRI screening added to mammography in BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutation carriers (Kurian 2006).    The hallmark of morality and morbidity of breast cancer can be attributed to the late presentation of the patients at an advanced stage of breast cancer. It is when there is no or little benefit that can be derived from any treatment modality. In a study conducted by Okobia and colleagues (2006), the knowledge, attitude and practice of community dwellers of Nigeria towards breast cancer were analyzed. They recruited urban-dwelling women with conducted an interviewer-administered questionnaires to elicit sociodemographic information regarding knowledge, attitude and practice towards breast cancer. It was found out that the participants had poor knowledge of breast cancer. Only 214 out of 1000 participants knew that breast cancer is presented initially with breast lumps. Breast cancer examination practices were low. Only 432 participants were able carry out breast self examination while only 91 participants had clinical breast examination. This study revealed that participants with higher level of education were significantly more knowledgeable about breast cancer. Ethnicity or race-related culture and beliefs are factors that affect the increase in prevalence of breast cancer mortality. Paterniti (2006) investigated how ethnically diverse women who are eligible for tamoxifen prophylaxis because of their breast cancer risk decide about tamoxifen use for risk reduction. Prior to the study, there was discussion of the benefits and risks of tamoxifen as prophylaxis. The study which included African-American, White, and Latina women, of 61–78 years, revealed that fear of breast cancer was not prominent and they were not inclined to take tamoxifen as preventive therapy after receiving the information. Participants showed limited unwillingness to take the medication with potential adverse effects. This study revealed that women felt that they had other options other than taking the risk of tamoxifen to reduce their risk of breast cancer, including early detection, diet, faith and other alternative therapies.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Graham (2002) conducted a research about   the relationship between beliefs and practice of breast self examination (BSE in a black women population of 20-49 years of age. It was found out that health beliefs were much stronger in determining BSE performance for a given individual than were demographic characteristics. Breast self examination was related to increased perceived seriousness of breast cancer, benefit of the procedure and health motivation and was noted to have inverse relationship with perceived barriers. A related study was reported by Mitchell and colleagues (2002), about the effects of religious beliefs with other variables on breast cancer screening and the intended presentation of self-discovered breast lump. This study included women aging 40 years and above and were interviewed in their homes. Most of the interviewees believed that doctors cure breast cancer with God’s intervention which was labeled as â€Å"religious intervention with treatment†. This dimension was found out to be correlated with self-reported mammography but no clinical breast examination or intention to delay presentation of self-discovered breast lump. Minority of them believed treatment of breast cancer was unnecessary because only God could cure the disease which was labeled as â€Å"religious intervention in place of treatment†, and was significantly more common among African-American women who   are less educated and older. This was correlated with the strong intention of delaying the presentation of self-discovered breast lump. It was concluded that   religious intervention in place of treatment contributes significantly the delay presentation of breast cancer among African-American that contribute largely to the advanced-stage cancer diagnosis. The cause of breast cancer is still unclear. Adjei (2006) who grew up in Ghan and had some work about breast cancer. In his letter, he revealed his sentiments about the genetic differences in breast cancer. He had been aware of the incidence of breast cancer in Ghana since 1974 to 1999. He noted that the peak incidence of breast cancer in Ghana is in younger women with age range of 40-45 years while in United States and Caucasians, the peak incidence is in older age groups. Adjei (2006) pointed out that women of different places and environments, with different diets have similar epidemiology of breast cancer. In an argument which revealed number of breast cancer in African-Americans but rare in native African has been used to suggest that ethnicity is one factor of acquiring the disease, however, according to Adjei (2006), this information is leading because cancer has not been well-studied in Africa. Researchers are still finding their ways to fully disclose the correlation of genetic signature in breast tumors that are presently noted   to be a powerful predictor of cancer spread and cancer death. In a limited study conducted by Kolata (2002), she included few patients who are relatively. As she stated in her report, scientists said that the activity of a collection of 70 genes appear to predict cancer mortality   better than traditional measures like tumor size, cancer stage or lymph node spread to the axilla of women. She revealed in her study that 5.5% of women with good genetic signature died within the next decade while 45% of women are those of with bad genetic signatures. Adherence to the treatment regimen of breast cancer plays a big role in the improvement of disease outcome. There are no much literature about the factors associated to the behavior that influence the patient to delay or cause an incomplete adherence to the recommended follow up in patients with breast cancer. In a study conducted by Kaplan (2006), race/ethnicity, country of birth, financial issues fear of pain and difficulty of communicating with the healthcare providers are the barriers to seek follow up consultation Breast Cancer Screening: There was decline in breast cancer mortality rate of 0.9% in African American women while 2.1% was the decline in breast cancer mortality rate in non-Hispanic White women (Stewart et al 2004 as stated by Settersten , Dopp, and Tjoe, (2005).    On the contrary, De Koning (2000), questioned in his study the cost effectiveness of breast cancer screening. His idea came out when he analyzed his expectations of the reduction of breast cancer mortality after breast cancer screening. He stated in his study that the Dutch program of 2-yearly screening for women aged 50-70 would produce a 16% reduction in the total population. As stated in his research paper, the actual benefit that can be achieved from breast cancer screening programs is overstated. According to him breast cancer screening need to be carefully balanced against the burden to women and health care system. De Koning (2000) stated that â€Å"effects of breast cancer screening program depend on many factors such as epidemiology of the disease, the health care system, costs of health care, quality of the screening program and the attendance rate†. Groot, M. T. et al (2006) estimated the costs and health effects of breast cancer interventions in epidemiologically different regions of Africa, North America and Asia. They developed a mathematical simulation model of breast cancer using the different stages of cancer, its distribution and case fatality rates in the absence and presence of treatment as predictors of survival. The study resulted to a conclusion that untreated patients were the most sensitive to case fatality rates. This study suggest that treating breast cancer at stage 1 and introduction of an extensive breast cancer program are the most cost effective breast cancer interventions.   Ã‚   This study is supported by the research done by Aylin and colleagues (2005). They recruited women at the mammography clinic to evaluate the knowledge about breast cancer and mammography as breast cancer screening procedure. The striking result of this study is that most of the participants (95.3% of the total participants) were aware that women should have mammography screening periodically. They were informed of the fact that breast cancer screening such as mammography could help in the early detection of breast cancer. However, less than 50% of them admitted that they had never had mammography screening. Majority of the respondents (71.1%) were practicing breast self-examination. Another related study was conducted by Dundar and colleagues (2006), since breast cancer is the second leading cause of cancer deaths in Turkey , they determined the t the knowledge and attitudes of women in a rural area in western Turkey about breast self examination and mammography. They recruited women with age ranging from 20-64 years. Although majority of the participants have heard or read about breast cancer only 56.1% of them had sufficient knowledge about breast cancer and some admitted that they acquired the information from their health care professionals. Those with information of beast cancer were also those who practice breast self examination. This study revealed that health care professionals play a big role in information dissemination about breast cancer. Table 1. Recommendations for routine mammographic screening in North American women aged 40 years or older who are at average risk for breast cancer* Group (date of recommendations) Frequency of screening (yr) Included ages (yr) 40-49 50-69 70 Government-sponsored and private groups US Preventive Services Task Force (2002)** 1-2 Yes Yes Yes*** Canadian Task Force on Preventive Health Care (1998, 1999, 2001) 1-2 No Yes No National Institutes of Health consensus conference (1997) No+ American Cancer Society (1997) 1 Yes Yes Yes National Cancer Institute (2002) 1-2 Yes Yes Yes Medical societies American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (2000) 1-2 if aged 40-49 yr 1 if aged 50 yr Yes Yes Yes American Medical Association (1999) 1 Yes Yes Yes American College of Radiology (1998) 1 Yes Yes Yes American College of Preventive Medicine (1996) 1-2 No|| Yes Yes American Academy of Family Physicians (2001) 1-2 No+|| Yes No American Geriatrics Society (1999) 1-2 Yes*** Advocacy groups National Breast Cancer Coalition (2000) No + No National Alliance of Breast Cancer Organizations (2002) 1 Yes Yes Yes Susan B. Komen Foundation (2002) 1 Yes Yes Yes The above table   was taken from the study conducted by Barton (2005) There are several ways presented and studied for breast cancer screening. Its concern is to reduce the prevalence of cancer mortality and to improve the quality of life as a result of early detection, however, there are still people that are not aware of breast cancer screening In response to increase the worldwide awareness of breast cancer, breast cancer advocacy movement has been analyzing the common experiences of women with breast cancer around the world especially those with limited resources. They found out that although there are language barriers, sentiments were consistent across cultures; cancer survivors have the same experiences and fears. The beliefs and taboos about breast cancer hinder the awareness programs and treatment. There are also limited resources for public education and awareness. Difficulty in understanding and translating the concept of the disease into English also hinders them in the public awareness of breast cancer (Errico and Rowden 2006). In accordance with this, sociological review of the barriers experienced by the women from different traditional cultures is essential not just to understand patterns of late breast cancer diagnosis but also the importance of interventions and programs. This is necessary for them to understand the preventive health care, specifically in breast cancer. This is because many are still ignorant of the breast cancer. According to Remennick (2006), health care providers and policymakers should try to understand and influence women especially those who are cancer risk to be aware of the disease to detect and treat breast cancer early. There are many structural barriers that hinder women especially those living in rural areas. Socioeconomic factors include poor health insurance, distance to medical facilities and inability to take time off work. Organizational barriers include difficulty in navigating complex health care systems and interacting with medical staff. Psychological and sociocultural barriers are poor health motivation, denial of personal risk, fatalism mistrust of cancer treatments and fear of becoming a burden on the family members. Still in other cultural behavior, especially in Muslims, women are strongly controlled by men and therefore may prohibit women in breast cancer screening. Remennick (2006) includes in his study the different approaches that lower the mentioned barriers, including implementation of uplifting the educational programs that would enlighten people regarding cancer myths and fallacies. He suggests that health care professional must outreach to their co ethnics. Primary health care providers play a critical role in   determining the compliance with treatment and preventive practices through direct recommendations to their patients. Family physicians and general internists showed that 70% of women who received a provider referral completed a screening mammography within one year versus only 18% of self-referred women (Grady   et al 1997 as stated by Santora 2003). However, Over 90% of rural women report that a doctors recommendation to have breast cancer screening is important† (Sparks et al 1996 as stated by Santora 2003). It should be noted that clinician compliance is contributed by several factors such as relation with provider, guideline of the treatment, patient’s behavior and environmental factors. Several studies have been conducted to report the   differences of health services in rural, urban and suburban areas with regards to their   health care services in the family practice clinics. It has been pointed out that lower utilization has been a significant factor. Those rural health practitioners have less access to health care services.   In a study done by   Pol and his colleagues (2001), suggested that rural health services do not lag for patients with access after revealing that 9 out of 16 services examined were as high or higher in rural areas. Another   study to examine the variations in breast cancer screening among primary care clinicians by geographic location of   clinical practice was done by Santora (2003). Physicians, nurse practitioners and physician assistants were included in the study and were classified into urban, rural and suburban categories based upon practice location. The study revealed that although there was no significant difference in the practice location, there was evident variation in the practice of   breast screening. It was reported that urban and suburban health practitioners were less compliant with the use of breast cancer guidelines as compared to clinicians in rural areas.   Primary care clinicians, including physicians, nurse practitioners and physician’s assistants lack a consistent. This study revealed   that geographical location is not the main factor of inconsistent medical approach to breast cancer screening. Although the difference in the approaches to the procedure is uncertain in this study. A related study about General Practitioners’ (GP’s) knowledge, beliefs and attitudes toward breast screening, and their association with practice based-organizations of breast cancer screening, was conducted by Bekker, Morrisona and Marteau (1999). This study revealed that women’s attendance for breast cancer screening may be increased due to raising GP’s perceptions of the   threat of breast cancer. General practitioners addressed their concerns about the procedure and enhanced their views on the importance of primary health care in breast cancer screening programs. REFERENCE Adjei, A. A., 2006, â€Å"A final word about genetic differences†, American Association for Cancer Research, Available at http://www.aacr.org/page4444.aspx. American Cancer Society 2005, Available at: http://www.cancer.org/docroot/CRI/content/CRI_2_2_1X_What_is_breast_cancer_5.asp Anderson, B. O. et al, 2006, â€Å"BREAST HEALTH GLOBAL INITIATIVE Breast Cancer in Limited-Resource Countries: An Overview of the Breast Health Global Initiative 2005 Guidelines†, The Breast Journal, vol 12 no. 1, pp. S3–S15. Aylin et al, 2004, â€Å"Knowledge about breast cancer and mammography in breast cancer screening among women awaiting mammography†, Turkey Medical Journal Science, vol 35, pp 35-42, Available at http://journals.tubitak.gov.tr/medical/issues/sag-05-35-1/sag-35-1-6-0409-8.pdf Bakken, S. 2002, Acculturation, knowledge, beliefs, and preventive health care practices regarding breast care in female Chinese immigrants in New York metropolitan area. Barton, M. B. 2005, â€Å"Breast cancer screening: benefits, risks and current controversies, Symposium on Women’s Health, vol 118 no 2, pp. 27-36, Available at http://www.postgradmed.com/issues/2005/08_05/barton.htm Bekker, H., Morrisona, L. and Marteau, T. 1999, â€Å"Breast screening: GPs beliefs, attitudes and practices†, Family Practice, vol 16 no. 1, pp.60-65, Available at   http://fampra.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/16/1/60 Bese, N.S. 2006, â€Å"ORIGINAL ARTICLE: LIMITED-RESOURCE INTERVENTIONS Radiotherapy for Breast Cancer in Countries with Limited Resources: Program Implementation and Evidence-Based Recommendations†, The Breast Journal, vol 12 no. 1, pp. S96–S102. De Koning, H. J., 2000, â€Å"Breast cancer screening; cost-effective in practice?†, European Journal of Radiology, vol 33 no. 1, pp. 32-37, Available at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrievedb=PubMedlist_uids=10674787dopt=Abstract Dà ¼ndar et al, 2006, â€Å"The knowledge and attitudes of breast self-examination and mammography in a group of women in a rural area in western Turkey†, BMC Cancer vol 6 no 43, Available at http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2407/6/43 Eniu, A. 2006, â€Å"BREAST HEALTH GLOBAL INITIATIVE Breast Cancer in Limited-Resource Countries: Treatment and Allocation of Resources†, The Breast Journal, vol 12 no. 1, pp. S38–S53 Errico, K. M. and Rowden, D. 2006. â€Å"Sociocultural barriers to care, Experiences of breast cancer survivor- Advocates and advocates in the countries with limited resources: a shared journey in breast cancer advocacy†, The Breast Journal, vol 12 no. 1, pp. S111–S116 Graham, M. E. 2002, â€Å"Health beliefs and self breast examination in black women†, Journal of Cultural Diversity, Available at http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0MJU/is_2_9/ai_93610993 Groot, M. T. et al, 2006, â€Å"ORIGINAL ARTICLE: GLOBAL EPIDEMIOLOGIC METHODS Costs and Health Effects of Breast Cancer Interventions in Epidemiologically Different Regions of Africa, North America, and Asia†, The Breast Journal, vol 12 no. l. pp. S81–S90. Kaplan, C. P. 2006, â€Å"Barriers to Breast Abnormality Follow-up: Minority, Low-Income Patients and Their Providers View†, Ethnicity Disease , vol. 15 no. 4, pp. 720–726, Available at http://apt.allenpress.com/aptonline/?request=get-abstractissn=1049-510Xvolume=015issue=04page=0720. Kolata, G. 2002, â€Å"Breast Cancer: Genes Are Tied to Death Rates†, SusanLoveMD.org, Available at http://www.susanlovemd.com/community/flashes/in-the-news/news021219.htm Kurian, A., 2006, â€Å"Cost-effectiveness of Breast MRI Screening by Cancer Risk†, Available at http://www.cbcrp.org/research/PageGrant.asp?grant_id=4018 Mitchell, J. et al. 2002, â€Å"Religious Beliefs and Breast Cancer Screening†, Journal of Womens Health, vol 11 no 10, pp.   907-915 Okobia et al, 2006, â€Å"Knowledge, attitude and practice of Nigerian women towards breast cancer: A cross- Sectional study†, World Journal of Surgical Oncology, vol 4 no 11, Available at http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1397833 Parkin, M. D. and Fernandez, L. M., 2006, â€Å"ORIGINAL ARTICLE: GLOBAL EPIDEMIOLOGIC METHODS Use of Statistics to Assess the Global Burden of Breast Cancer†, The Breast Journal, vol 12 no. 1, pp. S70–S80. Paterniti, A. D. 2006, â€Å"â€Å"I’m Going To Die of Something Anyway†: Women’s Perceptions of Tamoxifen for Breast Cancer Risk Reduction†, Ethnicity Disease, vol. 15 no. 3, pp. 365–372, Available at http://apt.allenpress.com/aptonline/?request=get-abstractissn=1049-510Xvolume=015issue=03page=0365. Pol, L. G. et al, 2001, â€Å"Rural, urban and suburban comparisons of preventive services in family practice clinics†, Journal of Rural Health, vol 17 no 2, pp 114-121. Reichenbach, L., 2002, â€Å"The Politics of Priority Setting for Reproductive Health: Breast and Cervical Cancer in Ghana†, Reproductive Health Matters, vol 10 no 20, pp. 47-58. Remennick, L. 2006, â€Å"ORIGINAL ARTICLE: SOCIOCULTURAL BARRIERS TO CARE The Challenge of Early Breast Cancer Detection among Immigrant and Minority Women in Multicultural Societies†, The Breast Journal, vol 12 no 1, pp. S103–S110. Rimer, B. R. 1995, Adherence to Cancer Screening, Available at https://www.moffitt.usf.edu/pubs/ccj/v2n6/article4.html Santora, L M. 2003, â€Å"Breast cancer screening beliefs by practice location†, BMC Public Health, vol 3 no 9, Available at http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2458/3/9. Settersten, L., Dopp, A. and Tjoe, J., 2005, â€Å"Breast cancer epidemiology: Myths and science†, Available at http://www.son.wisc.edu/ce/programs/asynch/bccd/1-introduction.htm. Shyyan, R. et al, 2006, â€Å"BREAST HEALTH GLOBAL INITIATIVE: Breast Cancer in Limited-Resource Countries: Diagnosis and Pathology†. The Breast Journal, vol 12 no.1, pp. S27–S37. Smith, R. A. et al, 2006, â€Å"BREAST HEALTH GLOBAL INITIATIVE: Breast Cancer in Limited-Resource Countries: Early Detection and Access to Care†, The Breast Journal, vol 12 no.1, pp. S16–S26. Wallace, L. S. and Gupta, R. 2003, â€Å"Predictors of Screening for Breast and Colorectal Cancer among Middle-aged Women†, Family Medicine Journal, vol 35 no 5, pp. 349-354 †Weight Gain a Big Factor in Postmenopausal Breast Cancer†, 2006, Journal of the American Medical Association, Available at http://www.aphroditewomenshealth.com/news/20060612001144_health_news.shtml Yip, C. H. et al, 2006, â€Å"BREAST HEALTH GLOBAL INITIATIVE: Breast Cancer in Limited-Resource Countries: Health Care Systems and Public Policy†, The Breast Journal, vol 12 no. 1, pp. S54–S69.

Most Memorable Scene In Of Mice And Men :: essays research papers

Part One:The scene that was most memorable to me in this play was when Lenny and Curley ¡Ã‚ ¦s wife shared a conversation while the others were away. It started with Lenny moping around about the rabbit he had killed and then Curley ¡Ã‚ ¦s wife joined him. This scene ended in a surprising way, but in my opinion many interesting things were discussed about the concept of life. I was extremely surprised with the ending of this scene because when the conversation began I predicted that it was the start to a close relationship between the two of them. During this conversation they discussed issues such as life and dreams. At first Lenny refused to open-up. "  ¡Ã‚ ¥George says I ain ¡Ã‚ ¦t to have nothing to do with you-talk to you or nothing. ¡Ã‚ ¦ " He was very reluctant to talk to her or share anything with her. She was the complete opposite. Curley ¡Ã‚ ¦s wife was looking for someone to talk to. As the scene continued, Lenny relaxed and was able to talk and listen to her. Curley ¡Ã‚ ¦s wife began by asking Lenny questions. As she continued walls were torn down and she was able to get closer to him. Then she told him about her life. "  ¡Ã‚ ¦I get lonely ¡Ã‚ ¦  ¡K..  ¡Ã‚ ¦You can talk to people, but I can ¡Ã‚ ¦t talk to nobody but Curley. Else he gets mad. How ¡Ã‚ ¦d you like to not talk to anybody? ¡Ã‚ ¦ " It was hard for Curley ¡Ã‚ ¦s wife to get Lenny to talk but eventually he told her about his rabbit and other things about his life. "  ¡Ã‚ ¥We gonna have a little place-an ¡Ã‚ ¦ rabbits. ¡Ã‚ ¦ " In the end Lenny became overly excited and ended up killing Curley ¡Ã‚ ¦s wife. From this, I gathered that Lenny had never been so close to anyone, especially anyone of this opposite sex. This gave him such a great feeling that he did not know how to deal with it. The moment he felt Curley ¡Ã‚ ¦s wife moving away, he acted on his inner feelings and he was frightened. The scene portrayed a good example of the interaction of two complete strangers, it was interesting to see how they shared things and opened up to each other.Part Two:This scene is related to the theme in different ways. I think that it incorporates three main aspects of the theme. It is related to belonging, loneliness and dreams. All three of these are active issues in society today.

The Mass Media Should Be Highly Responsible

ELTU 1001 Presentation Outline Name: Chan Yu Yan,Fiona SID: 1155032656 I. Topic The mass media should be highly responsible to the problem of childhood obesity in Hong Kong II. Introduction ?Opener – Ask question; ‘what’s childhood obesity in your mindset? ’ ? Background –To provide statistics about the % of population of having childhood obesity in Hong Kong (To show the seriousness of the problem) ? Purpose/Objective – To persuade the government and the public to agree that the mass media is the key determinant that leads to childhood obesity through the means of television especially. Stance – The mass media is the most influential stakeholder in affecting the severity of the problem when compared to family’s influence and primary education in Hong Kong. ?Preview – To compare the effectiveness of the mass media and the primary schools in solving the problem. III. Body 1. The coverage of the receiver ?The public v. s. pr imary students -Advertisements are published through the mass media, such as television and radio, the recipients of the advestisements are the general public; ? Parents are informed ? teach their children about the correct value -Primary school policies (e. g.PE lessons) only influence the primary students, who may not be able to understand the purpose of these policies? not seriously followed 2. Academic studies showing the influences of the mass media on affecting the lifestyle of the obese children. ? A number of studies have confirmed that obesity is directly related to the number of hours spent watching television (Dietz and Gortmaker, 1985, 1993; Gortmaker et al. 1990). ?Attractive commercials advertising food and drink(Bar-Or et al. , 1998; James, 2002) that promote foods that are not recommended for the optimal development of health and fitness of children(Parizkova and Hills, A.P. , 2005) ? IV. Conclusion – Summary / Concluding statement The mass media is one of the most important channel in affecting the childhood obesity problem in Hong Kong. V. References – Books, Websites, etc. 1. Parizkova & Hills, A. P. (2005). Childhood Obesity: Prevention and Treatment. Florida: CRC Press. 2. Non-communicable Diseases Aware,3(9). (2006). Retrieved November 10, 2012 from Centre for Health Promotion, Department of Health Web site: http://www. chp. gov. hk/files/pdf/grp-NCDAware-en-20060915. pdf 3. Bagchi, D. (2011).Global perspectives on childhood obesity : current status, consequences and prevention. Boston: Academic Press/Elsevier. 4. Hui, S. C. (2007). CUHK Sports Science and Physical Education Department Releases Survey Results on Childhood Obesity in Hong Kong. Retrieved November 10, 2012 from The Chinese University of Hong Kong, The Sports Science and Physical Education Department Web site: http://www. cuhk. edu. hk/cpr/pressrelease/070525e. htm 5. Kulkarni, A. (2010). Mass Media Influence. Retrieved November 22, 2012 from http://www. buzzle . com/articles/mass-media-influence. html

Acct451 Week 3

Companies Should not be Held Liable for Losses Sustained in a Successful Attack Made on Their AIS by Outside Sources. ACCT451 2013 I argue against the statement† Companies should not be held liable for losses sustained in a successful attack made on their AIS by outside sources. † There are several reasons for my contention. The Accounting Information Systems has been used by businesses to improve their recording, processing, and reporting of accounting information.At the same time it is the responsibility of the companies to adequately protect their information systems from outside sources. Since, the company benefits and consequently profits from the use of accounting information system, it should bear the losses that arise from attacks on the accounting information system. The argument in favor of the contention is that the accounting information system not only processes financial transactions to provide internal reports to managers but also does external reporting to outside parties such as stockowners, government and lenders.Since, it is essential that the accounting information system should be accessed by outsiders the system is particularly vulnerable to outside attacks (1). Still the onus of the security of its accounting information system clearly lies with the company and not with anyone else. It is a part of the business risk of a company. Consider the following example, a company maintains five distribution centers throughout the country. Each of these distribution centers may be attacked by robbers and looted. Who bears the loss?It is part of the business risk. The company cannot refuse to bear the losses. Similarly, if a company truck carrying goods to or from the company premises is attacked by robbers and is plundered, the company is responsible for the loss. It is another matter that the company may take out an insurance and the insurance company makes good the losses. However, the fact remains that the company pays premium for in surance and had there been no insurance, the company would have been forced to pay for the losses (2).The current accounting information systems bring tremendous benefits to companies. These generate several types of useful reports for the company, the company does not have to employ clerks to manually process accounting data, with a touch of a button information is generated, there are tremendous savings in costs, there is automatic payment and generation of important accounting documents, and there is efficiency in processing information. These benefits reduce costs for the companies and improve efficiency but come at a cost.One of the elements of the cost is that the accounting information system may be attacked from outside sources. Since the company enjoys these benefits, it must suffer the costs ( loss because of outside attack). A firm whose warehouses get destroyed by hurricanes do not absolve themselves of their losses because the hurricane is an outside source. Similarly, during war the premises of a firm may get bombed or hit by a missile, yet the company has to bear the loss (3). If an accounting information system is hit by outside sources there is a danger of fraud, virus attacks, or hackers.These risks have to be borne by the business as a part of its normal business risks. Further it is the responsibility of the company to maintain the highest level of security for its accounting information system. The physical security should be fool proof, authentication system should be the most advanced, virus protection should be the latest, and backup should be done at a safe place outside the premises. Such measures are required to ensure that attacks on the accounting information system like identity theft and loss of irreplaceable data do not take place.There are some institutions that are particularly vulnerable to outside attacks. For instance, the banks are vulnerable to outside attacks where the attackers seek to pilfer money using confidential in formation. In such cases, higher levels of authentication, and information security should be used. The fact that banks and financial institutions provide accounting information system based services, is a source of profits, these institutions are responsible for losses sustained by them (4).One of the most important features of most accounting information systems is the controls over the system and the security measures that the company implements If the company is not held responsible for the losses sustained by it because of outside attacks the company will avoid its responsibility for controls and security. It is also important that the quality of software used, the backup of data, and the people who are authorized to access the accounting information system are checked and tested.If the company is not held responsible for losses because of outside attacks the company will become lax in its essential functions related to the accounting information system. References: (1)Accounti ng Information Systems, Ulric J. Gelinas, Richard B. Dull E8 Cengage Learning, 2009 (2)Accounting Information Systems James A. Hall E6, Cengage Learning, 2008 (3)Accounting Information Systems Marshall B. Romney, Paul John Steinbart E10, Prentice Hall, 2005 (4)Information System Management, Ankita Bansal, Gyan Publishing House, 2002

buy custom The McDonald’s Store essay

buy custom The McDonald’s Store essay The McDonalds store sales burgers. Surely, they are excellent, that is why, people love them. However, it has come to the notice of the clients that the burgers sold at the McDonalds store contain a higher mean fat content which is very lethal to the people's health. This is a legitimate concern for the clients. As a result, burgers were taken at random in order to check their mean fat content in the laboratory. Data was collected, and the results were analyzed in order to be able to address a genuine concern of the customers to the McDonalds Burger store. This is very important as the McDonalds Burger store needs this information to develop and introduce its products and at the same time to satisfy their customers' demands. The McDonalds Burger store needs to do this so that it can be able to maintain its business as it is also no ready to lose its business to the competitors. That is the primary concern to the Mc Donalds business. On the other hand, the fat content level is importa nt to the clients because they will be able to know the amount of the fats that they take into their bodies. It is an indicator of the clients quest to live a healthy life. The fats and oils take an important part of the healthy diet, and they play very important roles in the body (National Cattlemen's Beef Association, 2000, p. 2). They are the source of energy on hand, and they are also an essential carrier of nutrients as well as vitamins, such as A, D, E, and K. Carotenoids are also involved with the fats. As much as they are very useful, they have also very serious effects in the body. They are a hazard in the health of the heart and the arteries. This is dependent on what the people eat in their diet. The clients who buy burgers at the McDonalds store have a genuine concern that this can influence their health.. To eat too much fat may turn out to be rather harmful to people's health. Buy custom The McDonald’s Store essay

How to Choose the Right College Major

How to Choose the Right College Major A college major is the main subject that a student studies while attending a college, university, or another academic institution. Examples of popular business majors include advertising, business administration, and finance. Many students begin their college education without a clear idea of what their major will be. Others know from an early age exactly where theyre going and what they have to study to get there. Most people fall somewhere in between; they have a general idea of what they want to study, but are considering other things. Why Choose? Choosing a major doesnt necessarily mean you’ll be stuck doing that particular thing for the rest of your life. Many students switch majors during their college careersome do it quite often. Choosing a major is important because it gives you a direction to aim for and determines what classes will be taken to earn a degree. When to Declare a Major If you’re going to a two-year school, you will probably need to declare a major soon after enrolling because of the short duration of the educational process. Many online schools will often make you choose a major as well. However, if you’re entering a four-year school, you are sometimes not required to declare a major until the end of your second year. Read more about how and when to declare a major. What to Choose The obvious choice for a major is an area you enjoy and are good at. Remember, your career choice will most likely be reflected in your choice of a major, so the majority of your classes will revolve around that area of study. In choosing a career, it would be best to pick something that appeals to you now and will provide you with job prospects in the future.   How to Choose The most important thing to consider when choosing a college major is what you want to do with the rest of your life. If you choose a major that doesnt particularly interest you merely because a job in that field pays well, you could end up with a few bucks in the bank, but be extremely unhappy. Instead, you would do well to pick a major based on your interests and personality. Dont shy away from the hardest college majors if those fields interest you. If you enjoy them, you are more likely to succeed. For instance, if you’re not a people person you probably shouldnt consider a career in human resources. People who don’t like math or numbers shouldnt choose a career in accounting or finance. College Major Quiz If you’re unsure of what major to choose, it may benefit you to take a college assessment quiz to help you pinpoint a college major based on your personality. A quiz of this type isnt infallible but it can give you a general idea of what majors might suit you. Ask Your Peers Consult with the people who know you best. Your family and fellow students may be able to help you decide upon a major. Ask your peers for their advice. They may have an idea or point of view that you haven’t considered. Keep in mind that anything they say is just a suggestion. You dont have to heed their advice; you’re simply asking for an opinion. When You Cant Decide Some students find that they are torn between two career paths. In these cases, a double major may be appealing. Double majors allow you to study two things at once, such as business and law, and graduate with more than one degree. Majoring in more than one area can be beneficial, but it can also be difficultpersonally, financially, and academically. Consider it carefully before taking this path. And remember, you shouldnt be disheartened because you don’t know what direction you want your life to take. Many people don’t choose a major until they absolutely have to, and even then, change majors at least once.

Challenges And Benefits Of Mammalian Cloning Essay

Challenges And Benefits Of Mammalian Cloning - Essay Example This is indeed, far from reality! Daily life experiences we go through and the environment we are brought up in play a decisive role in making us what we are irrespective of our genetic similarity with a parent or a sibling. Another big challenge in the way of mammalian cloning is the widespread conception among people that cloned mammals are perfect and that all weaknesses have been weeded out from them. This, again is nothing more than another theory about mammalian cloning that is frequently referred to by the opponents of cloning. Last, but not the least, mammalian cloning is threatened by people’s religious beliefs and practices. Practicing people from many religions are simply against the idea of mammalian cloning because they consider it to be fundamentally the expertise of God, and believe that no human can or should make an attempt to cross the limits. Although many of the generally believed theories about mammalian cloning are far from reality, yet they have posed ma ny hurdles in the way of research and development in the field of mammalian cloning and implementation of the techniques thus found. Benefits: According to Dr. Richard Seed who is a leading proponent of the technology of mammalian cloning, knowledge about cloning has been developed to such an extent that methods may soon be developed that would not only retard the process of aging in mammals, but also reverse it (â€Å"Benefits Of Human†).

Bauhaus by Walter Gropius Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Bauhaus by Walter Gropius - Essay Example Looking out from the building means seeing lines that obstruct the windows and frame them into multiple small panels. The building uses long floors through which the experience of being on the interior reflects a restricted, ordered feeling, based upon the way in which the exterior seems to promote long rectangular shapes. Movement inside the building would provide a reflection of the exterior through interior spaces that are interpreted as a reflection of the continuation of that aesthetic. From the external descriptive perspective, Gropius’ work reflects the avant-garde elements of architecture that arose through the period of the Modernists. The World Heritage List reports that â€Å"It made a major contribution to breaking ‘the power of tradition’, not only in the field of architecture, but also in the design of articles of everyday use and in advertising, creating a new language of form†. The period in which it was built was processing the world throug h an understanding of industrialization and human beings as they fit into an industrialized world. The intention of the work was to reflect a fusion of craft and industry, supporting the concept that â€Å"there is no distinction between monumental and decorative art†. The new aesthetics that were being taught at the time that this building was constructed were based upon the idea that the old world ideas about craft could be implemented into new world ideals that used modern materials and high quality craft, but reflected the aesthetics of the manufactured.